Criminology vs Criminal Justice? US 2024 Guide

The United States Department of Justice funds research and programs aimed at reducing crime and enhancing criminal justice. Criminology, as a discipline, is defined by its application of the scientific method to understand the nature, extent, causes, and control of criminal behavior. Criminal justice, conversely, represents the system comprised of law enforcement agencies, courts, and correctional institutions that respond to criminal behavior. A common question among those entering the field is what is the difference between criminology and criminal justice, particularly considering the practical implications studied by scholars like Cesare Beccaria, whose theories influenced modern legal and penal reforms.

Criminology and criminal justice, while often used interchangeably, represent distinct yet interconnected fields of study. Criminology is the scientific study of crime, its causes, and its impact on society. It seeks to understand why individuals engage in criminal behavior and how society responds to it.

Criminal justice, on the other hand, focuses on the processes, institutions, and policies involved in the prevention and control of crime. It examines the roles of law enforcement, courts, and corrections in maintaining order and administering justice.

The Importance of Understanding Core Entities

A comprehensive understanding of criminology and criminal justice requires a deep engagement with the core entities that shape these disciplines. These entities include:

• Pioneering figures whose theories have shaped our understanding of crime.
• Key organizations that administer justice and implement crime control strategies.
• Foundational concepts that provide a framework for analyzing criminal behavior.
• Research methodologies used to investigate crime and evaluate the effectiveness of interventions.

By grasping these elements, we can move beyond simplistic understandings of crime and develop more nuanced and effective approaches to addressing it.

Enhancing Analysis and Policy Development

Understanding these core entities is crucial for effective analysis and policy development. A lack of knowledge in these areas can lead to misguided policies that fail to address the root causes of crime. It can also perpetuate systemic biases and inequalities within the criminal justice system.

For example, without an understanding of criminological theories, policymakers may rely on punitive measures that are not effective in deterring crime.

Similarly, without an awareness of the research methodologies used in criminology, policymakers may adopt programs and practices that lack empirical support.

Purpose: Categorizing and Analyzing Essential Elements

This blog post aims to provide a structured overview of the essential elements within the fields of criminology and criminal justice. By categorizing and analyzing these elements, we seek to provide readers with a solid foundation for understanding the complexities of crime and justice.

The goal is to facilitate informed discussions and contribute to the development of evidence-based policies that promote public safety and social justice. This exploration will cover influential figures, key organizations, foundational concepts, and prominent research methodologies.

Pioneering Minds: Influential Figures in Criminology

Criminology and criminal justice, while often used interchangeably, represent distinct yet interconnected fields of study. Criminology is the scientific study of crime, its causes, and its impact on society. It seeks to understand why individuals engage in criminal behavior and how society responds to it. Criminal justice, on the other hand, focuses on the practical application of laws and policies aimed at controlling crime and maintaining order. Understanding the intellectual heritage of criminology requires examining the contributions of key figures who have shaped its theoretical underpinnings and continue to influence contemporary approaches to crime prevention and justice.

The Enduring Impact of Criminological Thought

The evolution of criminology is marked by the insights of pioneering thinkers who challenged conventional wisdom and offered novel explanations for criminal behavior. Their theories have not only informed academic discourse but have also had a profound impact on the development of criminal justice policies and practices. By examining the contributions of these influential figures, we gain a deeper appreciation for the complexities of crime and the ongoing quest for effective strategies to address it.

Key Figures and Their Contributions

Cesare Beccaria: The Architect of Classical Criminology

Cesare Beccaria, an 18th-century Italian philosopher, is widely regarded as the father of classical criminology. His seminal work, On Crimes and Punishments (1764), laid the foundation for the rational choice theory, which posits that individuals make calculated decisions to engage in criminal behavior based on a cost-benefit analysis.

Beccaria advocated for a fair and just legal system characterized by clear laws, proportionate punishments, and the presumption of innocence. His emphasis on rationalism and individual rights revolutionized criminal justice systems in Europe and beyond.

Cesare Lombroso: The Forerunner of Positivist Criminology

In contrast to Beccaria's classical perspective, Cesare Lombroso, an Italian physician and criminologist, pioneered positivist criminology in the late 19th century. Lombroso believed that criminal behavior was rooted in biological and genetic factors, rather than free will.

His concept of the "born criminal," identified by physical anomalies or atavistic traits, has been widely discredited. His emphasis on scientific observation and empirical research paved the way for subsequent biological, psychological, and sociological explanations of crime.

Edwin Sutherland: The Master of Differential Association

Edwin Sutherland, a 20th-century American sociologist, developed differential association theory, which emphasizes the role of learning in criminal behavior. According to Sutherland, individuals learn criminal values, attitudes, and techniques through interactions with close associates.

This theory highlights the importance of social environment and peer influence in shaping an individual's propensity to engage in crime. Sutherland's work shifted the focus from individual pathology to social processes in understanding criminal behavior.

Robert Merton: The Strain of Social Structure

Robert Merton, another influential American sociologist, formulated strain theory to explain crime as a response to societal pressures. Merton argued that when individuals are unable to achieve culturally valued goals through legitimate means, they may resort to criminal behavior as a means of adaptation.

This theory highlights the importance of social inequality and blocked opportunities in understanding crime rates. Merton's work has been particularly influential in explaining property crimes and deviance among disadvantaged groups.

Travis Hirschi: The Bonds That Bind

Travis Hirschi is renowned for his social control theory, which posits that strong social bonds deter individuals from engaging in criminal behavior. Hirschi identified four key elements of social bonds: attachment, commitment, involvement, and belief.

When these bonds are weak or absent, individuals are more likely to engage in deviance and crime. Hirschi's theory underscores the importance of family, school, and community in fostering social control and preventing crime.

Howard Becker: The Power of Labeling

Howard Becker, a prominent sociologist, developed labeling theory, which emphasizes the role of societal reactions in shaping an individual's identity and behavior. Becker argued that when individuals are labeled as criminals, they may internalize this label and engage in further criminal behavior as a result.

This theory highlights the potential for the criminal justice system to perpetuate crime through the stigmatization and marginalization of offenders. Becker's work has been influential in promoting diversion programs and restorative justice approaches.

James Q. Wilson: A Conservative Voice in Criminology

James Q. Wilson, a political scientist, made significant contributions to criminology through his emphasis on rational choice and situational crime prevention. Wilson's "broken windows theory," co-authored with George Kelling, argued that visible signs of disorder and neglect in a community can create an environment conducive to crime.

This theory has influenced policing strategies aimed at addressing minor offenses and maintaining order to prevent more serious crime. Wilson's work has often been associated with conservative approaches to crime control.

David Kennedy: Focused Deterrence Strategies

David Kennedy is known for his work on focused deterrence strategies, which involve targeting specific offenders and crime problems with a combination of law enforcement, community mobilization, and social service interventions. Kennedy's approach emphasizes clear communication of consequences and swift, certain responses to criminal behavior.

Focused deterrence strategies have been implemented in numerous cities to address gang violence, drug trafficking, and other crime problems.

Academics in Criminology & Criminal Justice: The Engine of Progress

Beyond individual theorists, academics in criminology and criminal justice play a vital role in advancing the discipline through research, teaching, and mentorship. Research professors conduct empirical studies to test theories, evaluate programs, and inform policy decisions.

They also train future generations of criminologists and criminal justice professionals. Their work ensures that the field remains dynamic and responsive to emerging challenges.

A Comparative Perspective

The influential figures discussed above represent diverse theoretical perspectives on crime and criminal justice. From Beccaria's emphasis on rational choice to Lombroso's focus on biological factors to Sutherland's emphasis on learning, these thinkers have shaped our understanding of the causes and consequences of crime.

While their theories may differ in their emphasis, they all contribute to a more comprehensive and nuanced understanding of criminal behavior. By examining their contributions, we can better inform policies and practices aimed at preventing crime and promoting justice.

The Institutional Framework: Key Organizations in Criminal Justice

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Having explored the intellectual landscape shaped by pioneering criminologists, it's crucial to understand the real-world structures that operationalize their theories and inform crime control policies. The criminal justice system is not a monolithic entity, but rather a complex network of interconnected organizations, each with specific roles and responsibilities.

Understanding the institutional framework is vital for grasping how crime is addressed, justice is pursued, and public safety is maintained. This section examines the core organizations that constitute this framework, analyzing their functions, interactions, and dependencies.

Overview of the Organizational Structure

The criminal justice system in most countries, including the United States, can be broadly divided into three main components: law enforcement, courts, and corrections. These components operate at the federal, state, and local levels, creating a multi-layered and often decentralized system.

Each level has its own specific jurisdictions and responsibilities, leading to a complex web of agencies and actors.

Key Organizations and Their Functions

Universities and Colleges: Shaping Future Professionals and Research

Universities and colleges play a fundamental role in the criminal justice system. They are the primary institutions for educating and training future professionals, including police officers, lawyers, judges, correctional officers, and researchers.

Moreover, universities are centers for criminological research, contributing to the development of new theories, policies, and practices. Their research informs evidence-based strategies and helps to improve the effectiveness of the criminal justice system.

Law Enforcement Agencies: Maintaining Order and Enforcing Laws

Law enforcement agencies are responsible for maintaining order, preventing crime, investigating criminal activity, and apprehending offenders. These agencies exist at various levels:

• Federal: Agencies like the FBI, DEA, and ATF focus on national security threats, drug trafficking, and federal law violations.

• State: State police and highway patrol agencies enforce state laws and provide support to local law enforcement.

• Local: City police departments and county sheriff's offices are responsible for policing within their respective jurisdictions.

Courts: Adjudicating Justice and Ensuring Due Process

The court system is responsible for adjudicating criminal cases, ensuring due process, and determining the guilt or innocence of defendants. The court system is typically structured as a three-tiered hierarchy:

• Trial Courts: These courts hear initial cases and determine facts.

• Appellate Courts: These courts review decisions made by trial courts.

• Supreme Courts: The highest courts in the jurisdiction, providing final interpretations of the law.

Federal and state court systems operate independently, with their own sets of rules and procedures. The decisions made in courts profoundly shape the direction and application of criminal law.

Correctional Facilities: Managing Offenders and Promoting Rehabilitation

Correctional facilities are responsible for incarcerating convicted offenders, supervising offenders on probation and parole, and providing rehabilitative programs. These facilities include:

• Prisons: Long-term facilities for convicted felons.

• Jails: Short-term facilities for pre-trial detainees and those serving misdemeanor sentences.

• Probation and Parole Agencies: Supervise offenders in the community, providing support and monitoring compliance with release conditions.

Correctional facilities are increasingly focused on rehabilitation and reintegration efforts, aiming to reduce recidivism and promote successful re-entry into society.

Research Centers: Advancing Knowledge and Evidence-Based Practices

Research centers, such as the National Institute of Justice (NIJ) and the Bureau of Justice Statistics (BJS), play a crucial role in advancing knowledge and promoting evidence-based practices in criminal justice.

These institutions conduct research on a wide range of topics, including crime trends, policing strategies, and the effectiveness of correctional programs. Their findings inform policy decisions and help to improve the effectiveness of the criminal justice system.

Professional Organizations: Fostering Collaboration and Setting Standards

• The Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences (ACJS)

• The American Society of Criminology (ASC)

These associations serve as platforms for scholars, practitioners, and policymakers to collaborate, share knowledge, and develop professional standards. They play a crucial role in shaping the field of criminal justice and promoting excellence in research and practice.

Think Tanks: Influencing Policy Decisions

Think tanks, such as the Urban Institute, conduct policy-oriented research and analysis on criminal justice issues. They provide policymakers with data-driven insights and recommendations on a wide range of topics, including crime prevention, sentencing reform, and community policing.

Think tanks play a significant role in shaping the public debate on criminal justice and influencing policy decisions at the federal, state, and local levels.

Government Agencies: Overseeing Criminal Justice Functions

Government agencies, such as the Department of Justice (DOJ), are responsible for overseeing the administration of criminal justice at the federal and state levels.

These agencies provide funding, guidance, and technical assistance to law enforcement agencies, courts, and correctional facilities. They also play a key role in developing and implementing national criminal justice policies.

Interactions and Dependencies

The organizations within the criminal justice system are highly interdependent. Law enforcement agencies rely on the courts to adjudicate cases, and the courts rely on correctional facilities to carry out sentences. Research centers provide data and analysis that inform policy decisions made by government agencies.

Professional organizations facilitate communication and collaboration among different actors in the system.

Understanding these interactions and dependencies is essential for addressing systemic challenges and improving the effectiveness of the criminal justice system as a whole. A lack of coordination or communication between organizations can lead to inefficiencies, duplication of effort, and even conflicting policies.

Effective collaboration and information sharing are crucial for ensuring that the criminal justice system operates smoothly and achieves its goals of reducing crime, ensuring justice, and promoting public safety.

Foundational Principles: Core Concepts in Criminology and Criminal Justice

Criminology and criminal justice, while often used interchangeably, represent distinct yet interconnected fields of study. Criminology is the scientific study of crime, its causes, and its impact on society. It seeks to understand why individuals commit crimes and how crime can be prevented. Before delving into the complexities of these fields, it is crucial to establish a firm understanding of the core concepts that underpin criminological thought.

Defining Crime and Deviance

At the heart of criminology lies the definition of crime itself. Crime can be legally defined as conduct that violates the criminal laws of a jurisdiction and for which there is no legally acceptable justification or excuse. However, the definition of crime is not static; it evolves over time and varies across cultures and societies.

Deviance, on the other hand, is a broader concept encompassing behaviors that violate social norms and expectations, regardless of whether they are formally codified into law. Not all deviant acts are crimes, and not all crimes are considered highly deviant by all members of society. Understanding the nuances between crime and deviance is essential for comprehensive criminological analysis.

The Role of Criminal Law and Punishment

Criminal law serves as the formal mechanism for defining and addressing criminal acts. It outlines the specific behaviors that are prohibited, the procedures for investigating and prosecuting alleged offenders, and the range of penalties that may be imposed upon conviction. Criminal law reflects societal values and provides a framework for maintaining order and ensuring accountability.

Punishment, a central component of the criminal justice system, involves the imposition of sanctions or penalties on individuals who have been convicted of crimes. The justifications for punishment are varied and often debated, including retribution, deterrence, incapacitation, and rehabilitation.

Each justification carries its own set of ethical and practical implications, which are often explored in policy discussions. The effectiveness and societal implications of various forms of punishment continue to be a subject of ongoing inquiry.

Deterrence, Rehabilitation, and Justice

Deterrence aims to prevent crime by instilling fear of punishment in potential offenders. It operates on the principle that individuals will refrain from committing crimes if they believe that the costs of doing so outweigh the benefits. Deterrence can be specific, targeting individuals who have already committed crimes, or general, targeting the broader population.

Rehabilitation focuses on reforming offenders and reintegrating them into society as law-abiding citizens. Rehabilitation programs may include educational and vocational training, counseling, and therapy. The effectiveness of rehabilitation efforts is a key consideration in correctional policy.

Justice, in the context of criminology and criminal justice, refers to fairness and equity in legal procedures and criminal outcomes. Justice encompasses a range of principles, including due process, equal protection under the law, and proportionality in sentencing. The pursuit of justice is a central goal of the criminal justice system.

Social Control and Theoretical Frameworks

Social control refers to the mechanisms and processes by which society regulates individual and group behavior to maintain order and conformity. Social control can be formal, involving institutions such as law enforcement and the courts, or informal, involving family, friends, and community members.

Several theoretical frameworks attempt to explain the causes of crime and deviance. Rational choice theory posits that individuals make calculated decisions to commit crimes based on a cost-benefit analysis. Strain theory argues that crime arises from societal pressures and the inability of individuals to achieve their goals through legitimate means.

Differential association theory emphasizes the role of learning in criminal behavior, suggesting that individuals acquire criminal values and techniques through interactions with others. Labeling theory focuses on the impact of societal labels on individuals' behavior, arguing that being labeled as a criminal can lead to self-fulfilling prophecies.

Broken windows theory suggests that visible signs of disorder and neglect in a community can contribute to higher crime rates. These are just a few examples of the many theoretical perspectives that inform criminological research and policy.

Due Process, Police Discretion, and Sentencing

Due process refers to the legal protections afforded to individuals in the criminal justice system. It ensures that individuals are treated fairly and that their rights are respected throughout the investigative, prosecutorial, and judicial processes.

Police discretion refers to the decision-making powers of law enforcement officers in determining how to respond to various situations. Officers exercise discretion in deciding whether to make an arrest, issue a warning, or take other actions. The use of police discretion is subject to legal and ethical constraints.

Sentencing guidelines are structures used to determine criminal sentences. These guidelines aim to promote consistency and fairness in sentencing by providing judges with a range of factors to consider when imposing penalties. Sentencing guidelines can be mandatory or advisory.

Recidivism, Restorative Justice, and Victimology

Recidivism refers to the tendency of convicted criminals to reoffend. Reducing recidivism is a major goal of correctional interventions and crime prevention strategies. Understanding the factors that contribute to recidivism is crucial for developing effective rehabilitation programs.

Restorative justice is an alternative approach to addressing crime that emphasizes repairing harm to victims and communities. Restorative justice processes often involve mediation, conferencing, and other forms of dialogue between offenders, victims, and community members.

Victimology is the study of crime victims and their experiences. It examines the factors that make individuals vulnerable to victimization, the impact of crime on victims, and the role of victims in the criminal justice system. Victimology informs policies and programs aimed at supporting and empowering crime victims.

Research Methodologies in Criminology

Rigorous research methodologies are essential for advancing knowledge and informing policy in criminology and criminal justice.

Data analysis involves the application of statistical techniques to examine crime trends, patterns, and relationships.

Qualitative research methods, such as interviews and focus groups, provide in-depth insights into the experiences and perspectives of offenders, victims, and criminal justice professionals.

Quantitative research methods, such as surveys and experiments, allow for empirical analysis and the testing of hypotheses.

Policy analysis involves assessing the effectiveness of criminal justice policies and programs.

Evidence-based practices are interventions and strategies that have been shown to be effective through rigorous research.

Several specific areas of research are particularly salient in contemporary criminology:

Community policing strategies seek to build partnerships between law enforcement and community members to address crime and improve public safety.

Mass incarceration refers to the high rates of imprisonment in the United States and its associated social and economic consequences.

Racial bias in the criminal justice system is a persistent issue that requires ongoing investigation and reform efforts.

Interconnectedness of Core Concepts

These core concepts are not isolated entities. They are interconnected and influence each other in complex ways. For instance, the definition of crime shapes the scope of criminal law, which in turn influences the types of punishment that are deemed appropriate.

Theoretical frameworks inform the development of crime prevention strategies, while research methodologies provide the tools for evaluating their effectiveness. Understanding these interconnections is essential for a comprehensive understanding of criminology and criminal justice. By grasping these fundamental principles, one can begin to navigate the complexities of these dynamic and vital fields.

Research in Action: Methodologies and Tools in Criminological Research

Criminology and criminal justice, while often used interchangeably, represent distinct yet interconnected fields of study. Criminology is the scientific study of crime, its causes, and its impact on society. It seeks to understand why individuals commit crimes and how crime patterns emerge. To effectively analyze and address crime, researchers rely on a diverse array of methodologies and tools. This section will explore some of these key approaches, evaluating their strengths and limitations in advancing our understanding of crime and justice.

Quantitative Data Analysis: Statistical Software

Quantitative research plays a crucial role in identifying trends, testing theories, and evaluating interventions in criminology. Statistical software packages are indispensable tools for analyzing large datasets and drawing meaningful conclusions.

Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) is a widely used program known for its user-friendly interface and comprehensive statistical capabilities. R, on the other hand, is an open-source programming language and environment that offers greater flexibility and advanced statistical techniques.

SAS is another powerful software suite often employed in academic and government research settings due to its robustness and capacity for handling complex data structures.

Each of these tools allows researchers to perform various statistical analyses, including descriptive statistics, regression analysis, and hypothesis testing.

However, it is essential to consider the limitations of relying solely on quantitative data.

Statistical software can reveal correlations but cannot establish causation without careful consideration of potential confounding factors. Furthermore, the quality of the data is paramount. “Garbage in, garbage out” holds true, highlighting the importance of data cleaning and validation.

Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and Crime Mapping

Leveraging Spatial Data in Criminology

Geographic Information Systems (GIS) have revolutionized the way crime patterns are analyzed and understood. By mapping crime incidents and overlaying them with demographic, economic, and social data, GIS enables researchers to identify hotspots, assess spatial relationships, and develop targeted crime prevention strategies.

The Power of Visualizing Crime

Crime mapping is a specific application of GIS that focuses on the visual representation of crime incidents. This allows law enforcement agencies and policymakers to identify areas with high crime rates. This in turn allows them to allocate resources more effectively.

Strengths and Limitations

While GIS and crime mapping provide valuable insights, they are not without limitations. The accuracy of the data depends on the quality of crime reporting and data entry. Moreover, spatial analysis alone cannot explain the underlying causes of crime; it must be complemented by other research methods.

Surveys: Assessing Victimization and Attitudes

Understanding Experiences Through Surveys

Surveys are a versatile method for collecting data on crime victimization, attitudes towards crime, and perceptions of the criminal justice system.

Surveys can be administered in various formats, including face-to-face interviews, telephone surveys, and online questionnaires, each with its own strengths and weaknesses.

Challenges and Considerations

While surveys can provide valuable insights into the prevalence of crime and public opinion, they are susceptible to response bias, sampling errors, and issues related to question wording.

Researchers must carefully design surveys to minimize these biases and ensure the validity and reliability of the data.

Experiments: Evaluating Interventions

Rigorous Testing of Programs

Experiments are considered the gold standard for evaluating the effectiveness of crime prevention programs and interventions. By randomly assigning individuals or communities to treatment and control groups, researchers can isolate the impact of the intervention and determine whether it has a statistically significant effect on crime rates or other outcomes.

Limitations of Experimental Designs

However, experiments can be challenging to implement in real-world settings due to ethical considerations, logistical constraints, and difficulties in maintaining experimental control. Furthermore, the results of experiments may not be generalizable to other populations or contexts.

Qualitative Approaches: Focus Groups and Interviews

Delving Deeper into Understanding

Qualitative research methods, such as focus groups and interviews, provide rich, in-depth data on individuals' experiences, perceptions, and motivations. Focus groups involve guided discussions with small groups of participants, allowing researchers to explore a range of perspectives on a particular topic.

Interviews, on the other hand, involve one-on-one conversations that allow researchers to delve deeper into individual experiences and perspectives.

Strengths of Qualitative Methods

These qualitative methods are particularly useful for understanding the nuances of criminal behavior and the impact of crime on victims and communities. They can also inform the development of culturally sensitive and community-based crime prevention strategies.

Considerations and Limitations

Qualitative research is typically more time-consuming and resource-intensive than quantitative research, and the findings may not be generalizable to larger populations.

However, qualitative data can provide valuable context and insights that complement quantitative findings.

Synthesizing Research: Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses

Strengthening Existing Data

Systematic reviews and meta-analyses are essential tools for synthesizing existing research findings and identifying evidence-based practices. Systematic reviews involve a comprehensive and unbiased search of the literature to identify all relevant studies on a particular topic.

Meta-analyses use statistical techniques to combine the results of multiple studies, providing a more precise estimate of the effect of an intervention or program.

Guiding Evidence-Based Decisions

These methods are particularly valuable for informing policy decisions and guiding the implementation of evidence-based practices in criminal justice. However, the quality of systematic reviews and meta-analyses depends on the quality of the included studies.

Researchers must carefully assess the methodological rigor of each study to ensure the validity of the synthesized findings.

Disseminating Research: Policy Briefs

Bridging the Gap Between Research and Policy

Policy briefs are concise summaries of research findings that are designed to inform policymakers and practitioners. These briefs typically highlight the key findings of a study, discuss their implications for policy and practice, and offer recommendations for action.

Effective Communication

Policy briefs are an essential tool for translating research into practice and ensuring that evidence-based policies are implemented in the real world.

However, policy briefs must be clear, concise, and accessible to a non-technical audience to be effective. Researchers must also work to build relationships with policymakers and practitioners to ensure that their research is used to inform decisions.

In conclusion, criminology and criminal justice research relies on a diverse array of methodologies and tools. Each method has its own strengths and limitations. Researchers must carefully select the most appropriate methods for addressing their research questions and must be aware of the potential biases and limitations of each approach. By combining quantitative and qualitative methods and by synthesizing existing research findings, researchers can advance our understanding of crime and justice and inform the development of effective policies and practices.

So, there you have it! Hopefully, this clears up the confusion. Remember, the main difference between criminology and criminal justice is that criminology studies crime and criminal behavior to understand its root causes, while criminal justice focuses on the system of laws, policies, and practices designed to control and prevent crime. Now you're armed with the knowledge to choose the path that best fits your interests – good luck with your future studies!